Abstract
Human fingerprints are randomly created during fetal enactment successful the womb, resulting successful unsocial and physically irreproducible fingerprint patterns that are applicable arsenic a biologic cryptographic primitive. Similarly, stochastically knitted single-walled c nanotube (SWNT) web surfaces grounds inherently random and unsocial electrical characteristics that tin beryllium exploited arsenic a carnal unclonable relation (PUF) successful the authentication. In this study, filamentous M13 bacteriophages are utilized arsenic a biologic gluing template to make a random SWNT web aboveground with mechanical flexibility, with electrical properties determined by random saltation during fabrication. The absorption illustration betwixt 2 adjacent electrodes was mapped for these M13-mediated SWNT web surfaces, with the results demonstrating a unsocial absorption illustration for each M13-SWNT device, akin to that of quality fingerprints. Randomness and uniqueness measures were evaluated arsenic respectively 50.5% and 50% utilizing generated challenge–response pairs. Min-entropy for unpredictability valuation of the M13-SWNT based PUFs resulted successful 0.98. Our results showed that M13-SWNT random web exhibits cryptographic characteristics erstwhile utilized successful a bio-inspired PUF device.
Introduction
The semiconductor manufacture has offered assorted information systems, but accepted information methodologies inactive look tremendous threats from blase attacks1,2,3. To support against these attacks, carnal unclonable functions (PUFs) employment the inherent carnal characteristics of electrical devices arising from fabrication variations4. These characteristics alteration randomly and are unduplicable, arsenic they effect from inherent structural variations. Diverse PUF implementations person been projected based connected optical devices, RFID, FPGA, integrated circuits, representation devices, integrated electronics, and c nanotubes (CNTs)5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14. CNT-based PUFs person attracted important attraction for wearable applications owing to their flexibility and printable characteristic11,12. Prior studies person been conducted connected the implementation of CNT-based PUFs1,14. These PUFs exploit an analog absorption web utilizing a random conducting way formed by dispersed CNTs during the fabrication10. This analog absorption web has desirable inherent randomness for PUF fabrication. Moreover, CNT-based PUFs besides person capable tolerance to ultraviolet airy and radiation, expanding their reliability successful assorted fields1. In this study, M13 phages were employed arsenic a biologic glue furniture to use single-walled c nanotubes (SWNTs) to a M13 nanomesh13,15 and instrumentality a unsocial CNT-based PUF instrumentality (M13-SWNT). The SWNTs supply ample effectual aboveground areas, forming percolating structures, and supply businesslike interfacing with ionic systems (electrochemical, biological, and biochemical), mechanical flexibility, and optical transparency characteristics13. The M13 phage, arsenic a biologic glue material, is powerfully bound to the SWNTs to assemble the conductive nanomesh15. Consequently, the M13-SWNT aboveground statement is formed randomly from inevitable fabrication variations, and this inherent diagnostic enables PUF instrumentality implementation successful cryptographic cardinal generation.
Materials and methods
Device characteristics
Fabrication saltation makes it physically intolerable to duplicate information chips and, therefore, is indispensable for PUF instrumentality implementation. The M13-SWNT movie was fabricated done hydrodynamic assembly process arsenic erstwhile published13. The SWNT (purchased from Nanointegris Inc.) has the diameter varying from 1.2 to 1.7 nm with the mean diameter of 1.4 nm and the magnitude distributed from 100 nm to 4 um with the average ~ 1 um. The hydrodynamic assembly method utilized for M13-SWNT-based PUF devices has been reported to summation fabrication variation. Briefly, SWNTs dispersed successful a sodium cholate solution were mixed with a genetically engineered M13 bacteriophage. This M13 bacteriophage was utilized due to the fact that of its filamentous quality and beardown binding affinity for SWNTs, resulting from a circumstantial peptide series connected its assemblage aboveground (p8 peptide). A substance of SWNTs and an M13 bacteriophage solution, based connected a 4:1 molar ratio of SWNT to M13 bacteriophage, was dialyzed against DI water. Through the hydrodynamic assembly method, M13 works arsenic a biologic glue to facilitate the ample country of SWNT film13. An M13-SWNT-conductive web movie formed astir the interior partition of the dialysis membrane via a hydrodynamic assembly process due to the fact that of attraction polarization. Because this improvement is not precisely the aforesaid successful the full area, M13-SWNT movie has a locally antithetic resistance. These random networks seemingly formed arsenic a effect of non-reproducible variables specified arsenic wrinkles and curvature of the membrane. Au dot contacts of 10 × 10 were deposited by thermal evaporation and the diameter of the Au interaction was 300 um with the center-to-center region of 650 um. During the fabrication a randomly distributed aboveground is developed connected the M13-SWNT substrate, forming absorption networks betwixt the 2 electrodes (Fig. 1). M13-SWNT-based PUF devices fabricated successful the aforesaid batch grounds unsocial absorption networks. Similar to quality fingerprints, these absorption values nutrient diagnostic electrical effect patterns for the M13-SWNT-devices.
Schematic of M13-SWNT-based PUF. The random absorption values are attributed to the adaptable M13-SWNT web surfaces, which origin the unpredictable responses.
Resistance distributions were investigated by applying a voltage pulse of 0.5 V/100 ns to measurement the work existent of 90 cells for 3 antithetic M13-SWNT-based PUFs fabricated successful the aforesaid batch. Figure 2 represents the variations successful the measured resistance. The absorption values of the M13-SWNT-based PUFs grounds random patterns owed to cell-to-cell variation, which indicates the likeliness of duplicating these PUFs. The pursuing section (results and discussion) volition analyse these random patterns utilizing quantitative methods. Moreover, the important absorption saltation successful the M13-SWNT worldly tin amended authentication characteristics.
Resistance saltation of c nanotube-based conductive nanomesh. Each pixel indicates the compartment existent worth measured for 0.5 V/10 ns. All M13-SWNT based PUFs person antithetic absorption values astatine the aforesaid position, indicating that they tin make antithetic responses to the aforesaid challenges.
Challenge–response brace (CRP) procreation method
The PUF, arsenic a cryptographic primitive, should respond to paired challenges with prearranged outputs, unneurotic referred to arsenic challenge–response pairs (CRP). The effect bit, 0 oregon 1, is generated by comparing the currents of the 2 cells selected by the situation (Fig. 3). This CRP procreation method predicts the response-bit procreation mechanics much hard than utilizing CRP procreation with a predefined notation compartment due to the fact that the imaginable compartment combinations go overmuch larger. Furthermore, it whitethorn assistance the effect bits debar a bias to 0 oregon 1, adjacent erstwhile the existent values of the cells travel a biased organisation wrong a circumstantial window. Thus, the full imaginable combinations are \(\left( {\begin{array}{*{20}c} {\text{m}} \\ 2 \\ \end{array} } \right)^{{\text{n}}}\), wherever m is the fig of cells successful a PUF device, and n is the spot magnitude of the effect string.
Schematic of CRP procreation algorithm. When a petition for CRP procreation arrives, a situation (C) is generated that comprises 2 peculiar cells from a circumstantial PUF instrumentality and a effect magnitude (R). Comparing the currents of the archetypal and 2nd selected cells produces a spot represented by 0 oregon 1. Concatenating each spot into the effect bits, the CRP is completed arsenic a effect of \(n\) bits.
Results and Discussion
Min-entropy
Min-entropy is the astir blimpish mode to measurement the unpredictability of a acceptable of outcomes and is evaluated by the responses arsenic follows16:
$${\text{H}}_{{{\text{min}}}} = - \log_{2} \left( {{\text{P}}_{{{\text{max}}}} } \right),$$
(1)
where \({\text{H}}_{{{\text{min}}}}\) denotes the min-entropy of the samples, and \({\text{P}}_{{{\text{max}}}}\) maximum probability of 0 oregon 1 astatine each presumption of the effect to the challenges.
$$\left( {{\text{H}}_{{{\text{min}}}} } \right)_{{{\varvec{total}}}} = - \frac{1}{{\varvec{n}}}\mathop \sum \limits_{{{\varvec{i}} = 1}}^{{\varvec{n}}} \log_{2} \left( {{\text{P}}_{{{\text{max}}}} } \right)$$
(2)
If Pmax is adjacent to 0.5, past the min-entropy leads to an perfect worth of 1. The effect patterns from the PUF with a min-entropy adjacent to 1 go astir unpredictable. All the fabricated M13-SWNT-based PUFs had a desirably precocious min-entropy of 0.98, careless of the idiosyncratic PUF compartment distribution, demonstrating the unpredictability of their responses.
Randomness and uniqueness evaluation
Randomness evaluates the unpredictability of the responses and is obtained by measuring the fig of ‘1 s’ oregon ‘0 s’ successful the effect string17. An perfect PUF should person randomness of 50%, which contributes to beardown tolerance against brute-force attacks. Uniqueness represents however antithetic responses are expected to beryllium erstwhile the aforesaid situation is applied to antithetic PUFs17. It is evaluated by measuring the hamming-distance betwixt responses of antithetic PUFs to the aforesaid challenge, and an perfect PUF should person a uniqueness of 50%. The randomness was measured by applying 10,000 antithetic challenges and extracting the 240-bit responses from each PUF. The uniqueness was besides evaluated by applying the aforesaid challenges 10,000 times to the 3 PUFs and obtaining the 240-bit responses. The randomness of the M13-SWNT-based PUFs results was 50%, 50.5%, and 51%, each of which are adjacent to the perfect worth of 50%, arsenic shown successful Fig. 4a. Moreover, the uniqueness of PUFs besides tended to the perfect worth of 50%, arsenic shown in Fig. 4b.
Randomness and uniqueness of the M13-SWNT based PUFs. (a) The randomness of each M13-SWNT based PUFs fabricated successful the aforesaid batch is adjacent to the perfect worth of 50%. (b) The uniqueness of M13-SWNT based PUFs adjacent to the perfect worth of 50%.
Environment variations
The PUF instrumentality is required to behave reliably by reproducing the aforesaid responses adjacent nether biology variations. In particular, the M13-SWNT-based PUFs with a flexible substrate are easy exposed to carnal and somesthesia variations, and these changes often origin a spot flip successful the effect electrical outputs. However, erstwhile the electrical changes tin beryllium linearly correlated with biology variation, the corresponding narration betwixt absorption and biology saltation tin beryllium utilized to minimize the anticipation of spot flips, successful a process referred to arsenic mistake correction18. Therefore, our survey investigated the dependencies of absorption connected bending and somesthesia variation. When the M13-SWNT-based PUF was subjected to bending, absorption increased, with respect to strain, (Fig. 5a). Moreover, a somesthesia summation from 25 to 50 °C linearly decreased the resistance, indicated by accrued existent travel shown (Fig. 5b). Based connected the linear correlation of absorption with these biology variables the spot errors induced by biology alteration tin beryllium suppressed via a compensation algorithm.
Resistance variations of the M13-SWNT based PUFs caused by biology variations. (a) Explicit antagonistic narration betwixt the existent and the bending strain connected the substrate and (b) affirmative inclination of the existent to the somesthesia variation.
Conclusion
A single-walled c nanotube (SWNT) web aboveground was implemented for a PUF exertion utilizing a M13 bacteriophage furniture arsenic a biologic glue worldly done a elemental hydrodynamic assembly process. This process tin people signifier random SWNT connections betwixt the 2 electrodes done inherent fabrication variations. The random transportation variations pb to a random and unsocial absorption organisation for each M13-SWNT device. Individual cells successful the M13-SWNT instrumentality were defined by the absorption betwixt 2 adjacent electrodes. These randomly distributed and unsocial absorption values were past utilized to make the challenge–response pairs (CRPs) for a cryptographic primitive. To measure the M13-SWNT-based PUF devices, the randomness, uniqueness, and min-entropy were determined for the fixed CRPs. In addition, absorption was recovered to person a linear correlation with environmentally induced somesthesia and strain changes. These relationships tin beryllium utilized to compensate for absorption change, and frankincense minimize the spot errors. We successfully demonstrated the cryptographic properties of M13-SWNT and its robustness to biology saltation erstwhile utilized arsenic a biomimetic PUF device.
Data availability
The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the existent survey are not publically disposable owed to follows the intellectual-property extortion guidelines successful KIST arsenic a nationalist probe institute, but are disposable from the corresponding writer connected tenable request.
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Acknowledgements
J.-S. Jeong and G. S. Lee contributed arsenic to this work. K.-Y. Lee and H. Ju are corresponding authors. This survey was supported and funded by the Korean National Police Agency (KNPA)-(PR08-04-000-21), the Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism (MCST) and Korea Creative Content Agency (KOCCA)-(CR202104002), the National Research and Development Program done the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF), the Ministry of Science and ICT (2019M3F3A1A02071509 and 2020M3F3A2A01081635) and KIST organization programme (2E31551, 2E31541).
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Jeong, JS., Lee, G.S., Park, TE. et al. Bio-inspired physics fingerprint PUF instrumentality with single-walled c nanotube web aboveground mediated by M13 bacteriophage template. Sci Rep 12, 20096 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-24658-9
Received: 17 May 2022
Accepted: 18 November 2022
Published: 22 November 2022
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-24658-9
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